Driven by the increasing consumer focus on health and nutrition, functional foods have gained significant attention in research and development over the past few decades (Pistorio et al., 2023). Consumers are seeking food products that not only taste good but also provide health benefits (Grujić and Grujčić, 2023). One such innovation involves partially substituting wheat flour with Kepok plantain flour (KPF) in noodle production. Because of increasing consumer acceptance, the noodle market size is increasing worldwide. Noodles can be categorized into several types according to their processing techniques: fresh, dried, boiled, steamed, and instant noodles. Among them, instant noodles are unique because of their additional processing steps, which involve steaming, frying, or drying (Keeratiburana et al., 2024). Thus, it is important to evaluate the properties of instant noodles produced by replacing a portion of wheat flour with KPF.

Although similar, plantains and bananas exhibit distinct differences that influence their culinary and nutritional applications. Plantains are starchier, less sweet, and often require cooking, enabling them to be utilized in various savory dishes through frying, boiling, or baking (Kumalasari et al., 2020). They have a thicker skin and are more prominent, changing color from green to yellow and eventually black as they ripen. By contrast, bananas are typically consumed raw because of their sweeter flavor and softer texture, with their skin turning yellow and brown as they mature. Nutritionally, plantains provide a higher starch content and more significant amounts of vitamins A and C compared with bananas, which are richer in sugars and dietary fiber. Moreover, both fruits are highly perishable commodities because of their high moisture content, which facilitates spoilage and decay, and production of ethylene gas, which accelerates ripening. Additionally, their sensitivity to temperature fluctuations makes them prone to rapid deterioration under heat and cold conditions (Fikadu et al., 2016; Leeward et al., 2023). Their soft texture further exacerbates this issue as they are easily bruised during handling and transport, leading to accelerated spoilage. Consequently, bananas have a relatively short shelf life once they become ripe, necessitating effective management strategies to minimize waste and maintain quality.

Kepok plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.) is a widely available variety in Indonesia, with significant potential for processing into various food products. Drying Kepok bananas using a drum dryer can enhance their value by producing high-quality banana flour (Hidayat et al., 2021). Drum drying offers several advantages, including rapid drying, minimal nutrient loss, and extended shelf life of banana flour (Balmurugan et al., 2022). Compared with wheat flour, Kepok banana flour has a distinct nutritional profile, making it an attractive alternative for individuals with gluten intolerance or celiac disease (Tangthanantorn et al., 2022; Kabir et al., 2024).

Incorporating KPF promotes food diversification, offering a healthier and more sustainable alternative for noodle products. Oguntoyinbo et al. (2023) used banana peel flour to develop functional noodles. Banana peel flour was substituted for 11%, 13%, and 15% wheat flour in the noodle-making process. The results showed that composite noodles containing banana peel flour had a higher water content (10.25%－11.25%) and cooking loss (6.28%－7.59%), with a shorter optimum cooking time (4.19－3.65 min) compared with noodles made solely with wheat flour (Oguntoyinbo et al., 2023). Choo et al. (2010) found that replacing 30% of wheat flour with green banana flour in noodle formulations significantly increased the total dietary fiber, total starch, and resistant starch of noodles while decreasing their carbohydrate digestibility rate and glycemic index (Choudhury et al., 2023). Consequently, incorporating green banana flour into foods, such as cookies, could be an innovative strategy for promoting slow digestion (Amini Khoozani et al., 2020) and enhancing fiber content (Hung et al., 2013). Green banana flour is notably rich in fiber and resistant starch, making it a valuable addition to various food products. However, the potential use of KPF dried in a drum drier for noodle-making has not been considered.

Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the use of KPF as a partial substitute for wheat flour in noodle production, focusing on its impact on nutritional quality (Zhang and Ma, 2016; Choudhury et al., 2023; Islam et al., 2024). The noodle properties, including mechanical, pasting, and cooking characteristics, will be evaluated to determine whether noodles with KPF substitution exhibit superior or comparable qualities to those made with wheat flour. The findings from this research are expected to greatly contribute to the development of healthier and more sustainable local flour-based food products.

Materials and equipment

Ripe yellow Kepok plantain was sourced from Serpong, South Tangerang. Commercial wheat flour was obtained from Cakra Kembar, Indonesia. Sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, methyl red indicator, and ethanol (pure grade analysis) were acquired from Sigma Aldrich. A drum dryer (Armfield Technology); an industrial-scale noodle sheeter (Shenyang Technology); a universal laboratory oven (UN30, Memmert); a muffle furnace (Nabertherm); an analytical balance (OHAUS Pioneer); and testing equipment, including a rapid visco analyzer (RVA 4500, Perkin Elmer), Kjeldahl apparatus (behr Labor-Technik), Soxhlet apparatus (behr Labor-Technik), and texture analyzer (TA-XT Plus, Stable Micro Systems), were used in noodle production. Details of the equipment are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 . Equipment settings.

Equipment	Purpose	Settings
Kjeldahl apparatus	Protein content analysis	Sample size: 1 g, digestion temperature: 380°C, distillation time: 10 min
Oven (for moisture measurement)	Moisture content determination	Temperature: 105°C, time: 24 h
Muffle furnace	Ash content determination	Temperature: 550°C, time: 4 h
Soxhlet apparatus	Fat content determination	Solvent: petroleum ether, extraction time: 6－8 h
Texture analyzer (TA-XT Plus, Stable Micro Systems)	Texture analysis of noodles	Probe: P/36R, speed: 1 mm/s, compression: 75%
Rapid visco analyzer (RVA 4500)	Pasting property analysis	Sample weight: 3.5 g, rotation speed: 160 rpm, time: 70 min, temperature: 80°C to 20°C
Drum dryer	Plantain flour production	Pressure: 3.5 bar, rotation speed: 8 rpm

Preparation of plantain four with drum dryer

Plantain flour production using a drum dryer involved several steps to obtain a high-quality product. The process began with the selection of ripe Kepok plantain. The plantain was carefully peeled to remove the outer skin. Once peeled, it was cut into smaller pieces to facilitate further processing. Then, the cut pieces were combined with water at a ratio of 1:1.5 (plantain to water). The mixture was homogenized to create a smooth plantain juice. Homogenization is important as it ensures uniform consistency, which is essential for even drying in the drum dryer. Next, the homogenized plantain mixture was fed into the drum dryer. The drum dryer was operated under specific conditions, with a pressure setting of 3.5 bar, a steam table temperature of 147.2°C to 148.84°C, and a rotational speed of 8 rpm. These parameters are important to achieve optimal drying (Chia and Chong, 2015). The moisture content from the plantain mixture was rapidly evaporated by the drum dryer’s heated surfaces. As the drum rotated, the plantain mixture was spread into a thin film, facilitating efficient heat transfer and moisture removal. Upon completion of the drying process, the now-dried plantain material was collected. Subsequently, this material was milled to produce fine plantain flour. Fig. 1 shows the method of creating the plantain flour. The milling process ensures that the flour has a consistent texture and is suitable for various food applications, including as a wheat flour substitute in noodle production.

Figure 1. Flow diagram showing the preparation of plantain flour and noodles with plantain flour substitution.

Production of noodles with plantain flour substitution

The production of noodles incorporating plantain flour substitution was carefully designed to evaluate the potential of drum-dried yellow KPF as a viable ingredient. The process began with the preparation of the noodle dough, which involved kneading a mixture of flour and water. For each batch, 210 g of flour was combined with 90 g of water to achieve the desired dough consistency. The flour mixtures were formulated according to the compositions shown in Table 2, with varying plantain and wheat flour proportions. For each formulation, the specific amounts of plantain and wheat flour were accurately weighed and then thoroughly mixed to ensure uniform distribution. The mixture was gradually hydrated by adding 90 g of water and then kneaded until a cohesive dough was formed. Kneading is essential to develop the gluten network in the dough, which is crucial for the texture and elasticity of the final noodle product. Once the dough reached the desired consistency, it was processed using a noodle sheeter. To achieve uniform thickness and texture, the dough was repeatedly passed through the sheeter.

Table 2 . Flour formulation for plantain noodle production.

Formula	Plantain flour (%)	Wheat flour (%)
F1	10	90
F2	20	80
F3	30	70
Control	0	100

Gluten plays a similar role in noodle production to that in bread-making but with a focus on the texture and elasticity required for the final noodle product. When kneading noodle dough, glutenin and gliadin proteins interact to form a network that provides the dough strength and elasticity, which is important for shaping and stretching the dough into thin sheets. During the kneading process, glutenin provides elasticity, allowing the dough to stretch without tearing, whereas gliadin contributes to extensibility, giving the dough a smooth and pliable texture. This balance is essential for producing noodles that are firm, yet flexible, with a chewy texture. Similar to bread, disulfide bridges (covalent bonds between cysteine residues), hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions help stabilize the gluten network, ensuring that the dough maintains its shape when processed.

Alternative ingredients (e.g., plantain flour, rice flour, cornstarch, or tapioca) are used for gluten-free noodles. As these ingredients do not form a gluten network, other hydrocolloids (e.g., xanthan gum or guar gum) are often added to replicate the elasticity and chewiness of gluten-based noodles. Gluten-free noodles typically have a less robust structure, and they can be more prone to breaking during preparation without the support of the gluten network.

In summary, traditional noodles have a gluten network that ensures their elasticity and chewiness, whereas gluten-free noodles rely on alternative binders to achieve similar textures. An illustration comparing these two processes would show the differences in the dough’s molecular structure and texture. Fig. 1 shows the process of making noodles with plantain flour.

Cooking quality of noodles

The cooking quality of noodles was evaluated in accordance with the method of Farzana et al. (2023) with slight modifications.

Water uptake percentage

For optimal cooking time, 10 g of noodles was cooked in 150 mL of water. After cooking, the noodles were chilled in a cold water bath for 5 min. The excess water was drained for 30 s, and the water uptake percentage (WUP) was calculated using the following formula:

$$\text{WUP (\%)=}\frac{\text{cooked noodles weight-fresh noodle weight}}{\text{weight of fresh noodles}}\times 100$$

Cooking time

The cooking duration was measured when the water in the test tube reached the boiling point. Several strips were extracted and compressed between two glass slides at 30-s intervals to inspect for a white core, which would signify incomplete cooking. The cooking process was sustained until a white core was not confirmed between the slides.

Cooking loss

Twenty grams of noodles was added to 200 mL of boiling water in a beaker and cooked for 5 min. The cooking water was transferred to a pre-weighed beaker and evaporated at 105°C in an oven. The cooking loss was determined using the following formula:

$$\text{Cooking loss (\%)=}\frac{\text{weight of remaining solids after drying}}{\text{weight of fresh noodles}}\times 100$$

Proximate analysis

Proximate analysis is essential for evaluating the composition of noodle products. It is typically used to determine the moisture, ash, protein, fat, and carbohydrate content. The following procedure outlines the steps required for accurate and reliable analysis, as quantified by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists procedure.

Sample preparation: Noodle samples were ground to a fine powder using a laboratory mill. The powdered samples were then stored in airtight containers to maintain their integrity until analysis.

Moisture content determination

One gram of sample was weighed and placed in a pre-weighed moisture dish. The sample was then dried in an oven at 105°C until constant weight was achieved. A continual weight was determined when the sample weight remained unchanged over two consecutive measurements taken at least 2 h apart. The moisture content was calculated based on the weight loss after drying:

$$\text{Moisture content determination (\%)=}\frac{\text{weight of remaining solids after drying}}{\text{weight of remaining solids before drying}}\times 100$$

Ash content determination

A 1-g portion of the dried sample was ash in a muffle furnace at 550°C for 4 h. The ash was weighed after cooling. The ash content was determined as a percentage of the sample weight:

$$\text{Ash content determination (\%)=}\frac{\text{weight of remaining ash after drying}}{\text{weight of remaining ash before drying}}\times 100$$

Protein and fat content

The protein content was assessed using the Kjeldahl method. The sample (1 g) was digested with sulfuric acid and a catalyst and then neutralized with sodium hydroxide. Ammonia was distilled and titrated with a standard acid. The protein content was calculated using a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor (typically 6.25):

$$\begin{array}{l}\text{Nitrogen content (\%)=}\frac{\text{volume of titrant (mL)}\times \text{normality of titrant (mL)}\times \text{factor}}{\text{weight of sample (g)}}\times 100\\ \text{Protein content (\%)=nitrogen content (\%)}\times \text{protein conversion factor (6.25)}\end{array}$$

The fat content was determined using the Soxhlet extraction method. The sample (1 g) was extracted with petroleum ether for 6 to 8 h. The solvent was evaporated, and the fat content was calculated based on the weight of the extracted fat:

$$\text{Fat content (\%)=}\frac{\text{weight of extracted fat (g)}}{\text{weight of sample (g)}}\times 100$$

Texture analysis of noodles

The noodle texture was measured using the TA-XT Plus Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems) in accordance with the method of Wiguna et al. (2023) with slight modifications. Default settings for noodles were applied using the P/36R probe. The analysis determined the adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, and hardness values of noodles.

Analysis of the pasting properties of noodles

The pasting properties of noodles were evaluated using a RVA (RVA 4500, Perten Instrument) in accordance with the method of Laksono et al. (2022). This method adhered to the standard noodle testing procedures. The samples comprised a plantain flour and wheat blend, as specified in Table 2. For the test, 3.5 g of each sample formula with 14% moisture content and 25 mL of distilled water (1% w/w aqueous solution) were placed into the sample can. The viscosity measurements using the general pasting method were recorded as the temperature decreased from 80°C to 20°C for over 70 min at a rotation speed of 160 rpm.

Statistical analysis

The data obtained from the proximate, cooking quality, and texture analyses were statistically evaluated to determine significant differences between various formulations. Analysis of variance was performed to assess the impact of plantain flour substitution on the measured parameters. A post hoc Tukey’s test was performed to further analyze differences between samples, which was when a significant effect was identified. This statistical approach helps to determine which specific groups differ from each other. Statistical analyses were conducted using PAST 4.0 software, and statistical significance was considered at P<0.05.

Cooking quality of noodles

The cooking quality of noodles is determined by assessing parameters such as cooking loss and cooking time, which provide insights into the texture and overall performance of noodles during the cooking process. These key metrics are essential for evaluating the suitability of noodle formulations for consumer preferences and industrial applications. The specific values of these parameters are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 . Cooking quality parameters of noodles with varying plantain flour substitution.

Kepok plantain flour substitution	Water uptake (%)	Cooking time (min)	Cooking loss (min)
10%	151.10±6.66a	9.00±0.00b	19.15±1.34a
20%	111.79±10.30a	6.00±0.00c	9.52±0.76b
30%	130.94±28.00a	5.00±0.00c	8.36±1.27b
Control	123.97±2.70a	12.00±0.00a	2.06±1.06c
P-value	0.07	<0.001	<0.001

Values are presented as mean±SD (n=3)..

Different letters (a-c) within the same column denote significant differences among the treatments at P<0.05..

Noodles supplemented with plantain flour displayed different cooking characteristics compared with the control noodles made with 100% wheat flour. The control noodles had the longest cooking time (15 min) and the lowest cooking loss (5.17 min), which is often desirable in noodle formulations. By contrast, noodles with plantain flour substitution exhibited shorter cooking times, decreasing from 9 min at 10% substitution to 5 min at 30% substitution. This finding indicates that incorporating plantain flour can significantly reduce cooking times, likely because of the flour’s different water uptake dynamics.

Cooking loss, an important indicator of noodle quality, also decreased with higher plantain flour substitution. Noodles with 30% plantain flour substitution had the lowest cooking loss (8.36 min), suggesting that the substitution helped retain the noodles’ structure and integrity during the cooking process. This is further supported by the fact that plantain flour provides more robust water retention properties because of the high number of hydrophilic groups within the starch molecules, enhancing the noodles’ stability.

Water uptake is influenced by plantain flour substitution in noodle formulations. The control noodles, made entirely with wheat flour, exhibited a water absorption of 123.97%. This value is not significantly different from that of noodles with plantain flour substitution, indicating that the inclusion of plantain flour does not substantially affect the noodles’ water absorption properties. Consequently, plantain flour substitution has minimal impact on the texture and appearance characteristics related to water uptake.

Noodles produced with whole wheat flour exhibited the highest water absorption capacity. This is attributed to the structure of wheat starch, which has a high swelling ability. By contrast, plantain flour provides more robust water retention properties because of the high number of hydrophilic groups within the starch molecules. Consequently, noodles with plantain flour substitution demonstrated lower water uptake and retained a slimmer shape after cooking (Thongkaew and Singthong, 2020). In summary, introducing plantain flour into noodle formulations positively influenced the cooking quality by reducing cooking times and losses without changing water uptake. These modifications contribute to creating a unique product that retains its shape and integrity after cooking while potentially offering a more efficient cooking process in home and industrial settings.

Proximate analysis

The results of proximate analysis of noodles with varying levels of plantain flour substitution revealed significant changes in their composition, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 . Proximate content determination of noodles with varying plantain flour substitution compared with control and Kepok plantain flour.

Sample name	Moisture content (%)	Ash content (%)	Fat content (%)	Protein content (%)
Kepok plantain flour	7.64±0.36d	2.70±0.08a	0.16±0.06	4.49±0.24e
Noodles (wheat)	8.81±0.07bc	0.51±0.06d	0.07±0.02	13.52±0.09a
Noodle with 10% plantain flour	8.61±0.17c	0.66±0.03d	Not detected	12.91±0.06b
Noodle with 20% plantain flour	9.29±0.21bc	0.82±0.03c	Not detected	11.86±0.38c
Noodle with 30% plantain flour	10.19±0.19a	1.02±0.03b	0.09±0.01	10.80±0.28d
P-value	<0.001	<0.001	0.06	<0.001

Values are presented as mean±SD (n=3)..

Different letters (a-e) denote significant differences among the treatments at P<0.05..

The moisture content showed a noticeable increase with higher KPF substitution. KPF had a moisture content of 7.64%±0.36%, whereas control noodles (without plantain flour) exhibited the highest moisture content of 8.81%±0.07%. As the proportion of plantain flour increased, the moisture content of noodles progressively increased, from 8.61%±0.17% at 10% substitution to 10.19%±0.19% at 30% substitution. This increase in moisture content suggests that plantain flour has a higher water uptake capacity than wheat flour, potentially because of its starch properties. The additional moisture may impact the noodles’ texture and cooking properties, influencing industrial production and consumer preferences.

Along with the moisture content, the ash content, which reflects mineral composition, increased with increasing plantain flour substitution. Although control noodles had an ash content of 0.51%±0.06%, KPF exhibited a much higher value of 2.70%±0.08%. This trend was mirrored in the noodles, where the ash content increased from 0.66%±0.03% at 10% substitution to 1.02%±0.03% at 30% substitution. This increase in ash content suggests that noodles made with plantain flour have a higher mineral content, which could be beneficial for enhancing the nutritional profile of the final product.

The protein content was also affected by the level of plantain flour substitution. Control noodles, made entirely with wheat flour, had the highest protein content of 13.52%±0.09%. As plantain flour was introduced, the protein content decreased, ranging from 12.91%±0.06% at 10% substitution to 10.80%±0.28% at 30% substitution. Since KPF contains less protein (4.49%±0.24%), this reduction in protein is expected. Although the protein content decreases with higher plantain flour levels, the substitution introduces other benefits (e.g., improved fiber content), making these noodles appealing to those seeking gluten-free or more nutritionally diverse products.

The noodles’ fat content showed a similar reduction pattern with increasing plantain flour substitution. Control noodles had a fat content of 0.07%±0.02%, whereas noodles with 30% plantain flour substitution had a lower fat content of 0.09%±0.01%. Interestingly, noodles with 10% and 20% plantain flour substitution had no detectable fat content, indicating that the introduction of plantain flour contributes to lowering fat levels in the final product. KPF itself had a fat content of 0.16%±0.06%. These findings suggest that incorporating plantain flour into noodles can help develop healthier, low-fat alternatives, which may be particularly attractive for health-conscious consumers or those following specific dietary restrictions.

Overall, the results of proximate analysis show how plantain flour substitution alters the nutritional composition of noodles, providing a valuable foundation for developing healthier and more sustainable noodle products. The gradual increase in moisture and ash content, coupled with the reduction in protein and fat content, indicates the potential of KPF as an alternative ingredient in noodle production, offering unique benefits in terms of texture, nutritional value, and functionality.

Noodle texture

The texture properties of noodles modified with varying levels of plantain flour substitution were assessed, revealing significant changes in adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, and hardness. As shown in Table 5, these findings demonstrate how plantain flour concentration can markedly affect the noodles’ texture, providing insights into the formulation of diverse noodle products.

Table 5 . Texture test results for modified plantain noodles.

Plantain flour substitution	Adhesiveness (g.s)	Springiness	Cohesiveness	Hardness (kgf)
10%	—48.87±4.08b	0.65±0.02a	0.54±0.01c	767.39±98.78a
20%	—41.42±4.95b	0.64±0.02a	0.59±0.01a	926.12±117.40a
30%	—36.34±9.82b	0.59±0.02b	0.57±0.01ab	804.79±41.44a
Control	—3.28±1.61a	0.63±0.03ab	0.55±0.01bc	879.07±106.13a
P-value	<0.001	0.03	0.01	0.25

Values are presented as mean±SD (n=3)..

Different letters (a-c) within the same column denote significant differences among the treatments at P<0.05..

At 10% substitution, the noodles demonstrated low adhesiveness (−48.87 g.s), indicating that they were less sticky than other formulations. The springiness value was moderate (0.65), reflecting an average elasticity level, whereas the cohesiveness value of 0.54 showed that the noodles maintained their shape reasonably well. The hardness value of 767.39 kgf indicated that the noodles were relatively firm.

As the plantain flour concentration increased to 20%, the noodles exhibited slight improvements in adhesiveness (−3.28 g.s), suggesting better adherence. The springiness value also slightly improved to 0.64, indicating enhanced elasticity, whereas the cohesiveness value increased to 0.59, implying better shape retention. However, the hardness value dramatically increased to 926.12 kgf, indicating a firmer texture.

At 30% substitution, the adhesiveness further decreased to −36.34 g.s, showing that the noodles became even less sticky. The springiness remained relatively stable (0.59), whereas the cohesiveness value decreased slightly to 0.57, indicating a marginal reduction in shape retention compared with that at 20% substitution. The hardness value also decreased to 804.79 kgf, suggesting a softer texture than noodles with 20% plantain flour substitution, although the noodles were still firmer than control noodles.

For comparison, control noodles (with 0% plantain flour) showed an adhesiveness of −3.28 g.s, a springiness value of 0.63, a cohesiveness value of 0.55, and a hardness value of 879.07 kgf (Jonkers et al., 2022) These results indicate that the inclusion of plantain flour modifies the texture, making the noodles less sticky, more elastic, and either softer or firmer depending on the concentration.

Substituting wheat flour with up to 30% KPF resulted in softer noodles with reduced shape retention. This is likely because of the absence of gluten in plantain flour, which weakens the gluten network in the dough, leading to a softer texture. The differences in starch properties between plantain and wheat flour, including lower gelatinization and retrogradation tendencies in plantain starch, also contribute to the reduction in shape retention. Furthermore, the higher fiber content of plantain flour might disrupt the cohesion and structure of the dough.

In previous studies, the lower firmness and less rigid texture in noodles with 30% banana flour incorporation were partly because of the dilution of gluten proteins (Zang et al., 2022), changes in water uptake behavior (Jia et al., 2022), impaired gluten network integrity (Liu et al., 2021), and changes in starch-water interactions (Shang et al., 2023). These factors affect the chemical and structural properties of the noodle matrix, causing these textural and stability differences.

These findings suggest that modifying noodles with plantain flour can significantly influence their texture, particularly in terms of elasticity, stickiness, and hardness. Therefore, balancing these properties is essential for optimizing the quality of noodles. Incorporating plantain flour into noodle formulations offers promising opportunities for creating new noodle products with enhanced textures, providing valuable insights for product development.

Pasting properties of flour

Fig. 2 shows the test results of the RVA for raw noodles with wheat flour (control) and noodles with plantain flour substitution. This figure shows a significant difference between the control and experimental samples, indicating that adding plantain flour can substantially alter the quality of noodles.

Figure 2. Test results of the rapid viscosity analyzer.

According to Panozzo and McCormick (1993), the RVA value, particularly the peak viscosity (PV), can determine the quality of flour used for making noodles. A PV value above 2,400 cP is considered to indicate superior-grade flour. From the data obtained, only the control sample had a PV above 2,400 cP, with a value of 5,032 cP. By contrast, the addition of plantain flour significantly reduced the PV value in all experimental samples, with none exceeding 1,745 cP.

The viscosity values obtained are shown in Table 6. The sample with 10% plantain flour substitution had a PV of 860 cP, whereas that with 20% plantain flour substitution had a PV of 1,745 cP. The sample with 30% plantain flour substitution exhibited the lowest PV of 494 cP. These values indicate that increasing the plantain flour substitution level results in lower PV values.

Table 6 . Pasting properties of noodles with plantain flour substitution.

Plantain flour substitution	Peak viscosity (cP)	Peak time (s)	Breakdown (cP)	Final viscosity (cP)
10%	860±2.00c	496±1.00b	340±2.00c	802±2.52c
20%	1,745±3.00b	484±1.00c	678±1.53b	1,474±2.00b
30%	494±2.00d	484±1.00c	279±1.00d	595±2.00d
Control	5,032±3.51a	512±1.00a	2,167±1.53a	4,597±2.00a
P-value	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001

Values are presented as mean±SD (n=3)..

Different letters (a-c) within the same column denote significant differences among the treatments at P<0.05..

According to Ross et al. (1997), noodles with a low pasting peak have stronger gelling properties of amylose in the continuous phase of the noodle. This suggests that plantain flour substitution affects the gelling properties of the noodles. Moreover, the protein content and quality are important determinants of alkaline noodle quality. Fan et al. (2018) indicated that alkaline noodles typically have low PV, breakdown, and final viscosity values. Therefore, substituting wheat flour with plantain flour modifies its properties, making it suitable for alkaline noodles. Specifically, replacing 30% of wheat flour with plantain flour produces noodles with the lowest viscosity values, aligning with the desired characteristics for alkaline noodles. This modification can improve the gelling properties and overall quality of alkaline noodles, providing valuable insights for developing noodle products using plantain flour as a key ingredient.

Incorporating plantain flour decreases the PV because of the changes in starch composition and interaction within the noodle matrix. Such a shift in starch composition can have a significant impact on the final noodle quality because of insufficient structural support from the weakened gluten network combined with altered starch behavior, such as making a softer texture (Heo et al., 2012), shorter cooking time (Zhang et al., 2022), lower viscosity that decreases chewability (Zang et al., 2022), and more prone to breaking during cooking (Li et al., 2024).

Substituting wheat flour with up to 30% KPF resulted in noodles with favorable gelling properties, optimal cooking quality, and acceptable texture characteristics. This study provides important insights for developing healthier and more sustainable noodle products using KPF. Such innovations offer a valuable gluten-free alternative, catering to consumers with specific dietary needs and preferences. These findings contribute to the broader field of food diversification, promoting the use of locally sourced ingredients to enhance the nutritional profile and sustainability of food products.

None.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Concept and design: HL, BW, ASN. Experimental: BB, AR, AKR. Writing the articles HL, GKA, ASN. Analysis and interpretation: RPGP, ADK, MM, AM. Critical revision of the article: ASN, BW, HL, GKA. Final approval, and overall responsibility: all authors.