Articles Service
Note
Physicochemical Properties of Yanggaeng with Added Tempeh Powder
1Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
2Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Chungnam 31116, Korea
3Department of Food and Nutrition, Sunchon National University, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
4Research Center for Industrialization of Natural Neutralization, Dankook University, Gyeonggi 16890, Korea
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Prev Nutr Food Sci 2023; 28(4): 514-519
Published December 31, 2023 https://doi.org/10.3746/pnf.2023.28.4.514
Copyright © The Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.
Abstract
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
Yanggaeng is a traditional Korean confectionery made from bean paste combined with agar and sugar (Choi and Lee, 2015). Over the years, Yanggaeng has maintained its reputation as a beloved snack for people of all ages thanks to its delightful sweetness and its soft, chewy texture. Consequently, Yanggaeng is frequently packaged as a gift and enjoyed during special occasions in Korea, such as the Lunar New Year (Yoon et al., 2018). Its compact packaging makes Yanggaeng a versatile choice, meaning Yanggaeng can serve as an alternative food in scenarios such as providing an energy boost for the elderly (Park et al., 2022), or as a convenient snack to replenish energy during physical activity (Kim et al., 2014). However, due to its high sugar content, excessive consumption of Yanggaeng can lead to health problems. A diet rich in refined sugars can elevate the risk of metabolic syndrome, including conditions like dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity (Macdonald, 2016).
Tempeh, originating from Indonesia, is a fermented soybean product created through the action of the mold species
Microbial fermentation leads to the hydrolysis of protein compounds, facilitating the efficient absorption of fermented protein products in the digestive system. Therefore, fermented foods such as tempeh are easily digested, absorbed, and utilized by the human body. The molds (
In response to the modern consumer’s preference for functional foods that promote health, several studies have been conducted to explore the addition of functional ingredients to Yanggaeng. The goal is to decrease the sugar content while boosting the protein levels in Yanggaeng. Recent initiatives focused on elevating the protein content of Yanggaeng have explored the incorporation of ingredients such as lentil beans (Noh et al., 2016), mealworms (Lee et al., 2021), and dry shrimp (Park et al., 2022). Numerous studies have also focused on enhancing the health-promoting properties of Yanggaeng by incorporating ingredients that are rich in functional and nutritional components. In this study, various concentrations of tempeh were added to Yanggaeng to create a novel high-protein snack. The proximate composition, physicochemical properties, and radical scavenging capacities of the different Yanggaeng were investigated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of tempeh-treated Yanggaeng
Frozen tempeh was imported from Bumi Food (Frozen Food: Tempeh, BumiFood Industry) and mechanically ground using an automated blender (HR2904, Philips Co.). The resulting powdery product, tempeh powder (TP), was used for further formulation. To prepare the Yanggaeng mixture, 10
-
Table 1 . Tempeh powder-added Yanggaeng formulations
Ingredient (g) CON TP2 TP4 TP6 White bean paste 500 490 480 470 Water 400 400 400 400 White sugar 100 100 100 100 Agar powder 10 10 10 10 Tempeh powder 0 10 20 30 CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Proximate analysis of Yanggaeng
The proximate characteristics of Yanggaeng, including crude ash, crude fat, moisture, crude protein levels, and carbohydrates, were assessed according to a well-established analytical method described previously (Bae et al., 2019; Ha et al., 2019).
Chromaticity of Yanggaeng
The
pH and Brix of Yanggaeng
Two grams of Yanggaeng was suspended in 20 mL of distilled water and centrifuged at 3,000
Antioxidant capacity of Yanggaeng
The total flavonoid contents (TFC) and total phenolic contents (TPC) were determined using established peer-reviewed methods (Kim et al., 2021). Quercetin and gallic acid were employed as reference materials for TFC and TPC measurement, respectively, and the results were reported as quercetin equivalents (mg QE/g) and gallic acid equivalents (μg GAE/g), respectively. The 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging capacities were also determined following previously published protocols (Kim and Yook, 2022; Lee et al., 2022).
Statistical analysis
The data were expressed as the mean and standard deviation from three independent measurements. The values were ranked and analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Tukey’s post hoc test, performed using the XLSTAT 2012 (Addinsoft, Inc.). The significance threshold for statistical differences was set at
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Proximate composition of Yanggaeng
The moisture, crude ash, crude fat, crude protein, and calculated carbohydrate content of the Yanggaeng are presented in Table 2. The moisture and crude fat content of the Yanggaeng did not vary significantly with the addition of tempeh. The crude ash content was lowest in TP4 and highest in TP6; however, considering the overall Yanggaeng composition, the statistical difference was negligible. As expected, the addition of tempeh, a protein-rich source, significantly and gradually increased the crude protein content of the Yanggaeng. The addition of a plant protein-rich source as a food additive in Yanggaeng generally leads to an elevation in crude protein content (Hu et al., 2022). Meanwhile, as the additional protein content replaced the white sugar content, the carbohydrate content gradually decreased (Gillespie et al., 2023) in the tempeh-added Yanggaeng.
-
Table 2 . Proximate compositions of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder (%)
Proximate composition CON TP2 TP4 TP6 Moisture 44.59±0.25NS 45.83±0.75 48.32±0.66 44.31±0.23 Crude ash 0.04±0.02ab 0.06±0.03ab 0.01±0.05b 0.09±0.03a Crude fat 0.43±0.30NS 0.84±0.61 1.06±0.59 0.30±0.16 Crude protein 6.77±0.84c 9.76±3.21bc 13.56±1.66ab 14.33±1.90a Carbohydrate1) 48.17±1.13a 43.50±2.11ab 41.07±2.06b 40.96±1.92b CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-c) in the same row are significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant.1)Carbohydrate=100−(moisture+crude ash+crude fat+crude protein).
Colorimetric properties of Yanggaeng
Table 3 presents the colorimetric properties of the various Yanggaeng. With an increase in TP, the overall
-
Table 3 . Hunter’s colorimetric properties of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 L *42.27±0.15d 45.17±0.21b 48.13±0.57a 43.47±0.12c a *—0.70±0.20NS —0.53±0.06 —0.77±0.06 —0.60±0.00 b *2.50±0.20d 5.07±0.06c 5.73±0.21b 7.53±0.06a BI 4.74±0.75c 10.74±0.23bc 11.19±0.40ab 17.54±0.19a CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-d) in the same row were significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant.L* , lightness;a* , redness;b* , yellowness; BI, browning index.
-
Figure 1. External features of Yanggaeng made with tempeh powder. CON, control (no added tempeh powder); TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
The increased
pH and Brix values of the Yanggaeng
Table 4 shows the pH and Brix values of the formulated Yanggaeng. With an increase in the amount of tempeh-added, the overall pH of the Yanggaeng was significantly reduced. The pH was 6.69 in the control, and with the addition of tempeh, the pH gradually decreased to 6.62, 6.48, and 6.42 in the TP2, TP4, and TP6 samples, respectively. During microbial fermentation, pH is typically reduced due to the production of acidic metabolites (Zheng and Tian, 2006), including organic acids and lactic acid, as well as GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) (Guo, 2013). Since tempeh undergoes fermentation during its production, it may have an acidic nature, which is why the addition of tempeh lowers the pH when used as a food additive. This change in pH may also enhance the textural properties, for example by improving the chewiness and softness, as demonstrated in a pilot study conducted by Jang (2023a). Further analysis of the textural properties is necessary in the follow-up study.
-
Table 4 . Variations in pH and Brix of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 pH 6.69±0.02a 6.62±0.01b 6.48±0.01c 6.42±0.01d Brix 2.70±0.00b 3.00±0.00a 2.20±0.06c 1.87±0.06d CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-d) in the same row are significantly different at
P <0.05.
The addition of tempeh had an intriguing effect on the Brix value of the Yanggaeng. The Brix value was highest in TP2 (3.00), and was significantly higher than that of the control (2.70). However, TP4 (2.20) and TP6 (1.87) exhibited significantly lower Brix levels compared to the control. In our experimental recipe, a portion of the white bean paste was replaced by TP. In the control, there may have been a significant amount of undissolved white bean paste, which could explain why the relative Brix may have been higher in TP2. In the case of TP4 and TP6, despite having a higher amount of tempeh compared to the other groups, it exhibited a lower Brix, possibly because the Maillard reaction decreased the Brix in TP4 and TP6 (Buedo et al., 2000).
Antioxidative properties of Yanggaeng
Table 5 presents the TPC and ABTS radical scavenging activities of the tempeh-added Yanggaeng. Interestingly, there was an increasing trend in the TPC in the TP6 Yanggaeng compared to the other groups. This increase in TPC in TP6 may be attributed to microbial fermentation, which could enhance the level of phenolic compounds in tempeh, potentially leading to an elevation in TPC. The TPC values of the CON, TP2, and TP4 were 9.12, 9.13, and 9.69 μg GAE/g, respectively. Interestingly, the TPC value was far higher in TP6, measuring 16.11 μg GAE/g. Previous reports have clearly demonstrated that the hydrolysis of plant-based protein sources enhances the phenolic and/or flavonoid contents after enzymatic processing (Hu et al., 2022), as observed in our data.
-
Table 5 . Antioxidative activities of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 TPC (μg GAE/g) 9.12±1.91NS 9.13±2.28 9.69±4.70 16.11±3.16 ABTS radical scavenging activities (inhibition %) 6.63±0.12c 6.60±0.40c 7.44±0.47b 12.27±1.44a CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-c) in the same row were significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant.TPC, total phenol content; GAE, gallic acid equivalent; ABTS, 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid).
Due to the production of TPC in TP6, we logically speculated that the TFC would also be elevated in tempeh-added Yanggaeng; however, flavonoids were not detectable in any of the samples (with a limit of quantification set at 100 mg QE/g; data not shown). This absence of detectable TFC could potentially be explained by the fact that white bean paste, a major component of Yanggaeng, is derived from kidney beans (
Conclusion
The physical and chemical properties of Yanggaeng with added TP vary depending on the concentration of addition. With the addition of tempeh, the crude protein content increased and carbohydrates decreased. The dark and brown color changed because
FUNDING
None.
AUTHOR DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Concept and design: A, IK, JHH. Analysis and interpretation: all authors. Data collection: A, JL, HJ, DK. Writing the article: A, JL, HJ, JHH. Critical revision of the article: all authors. Final approval of the article: all authors. Statistical analysis: A, JL, HJ, DK, JHH. Overall responsibility: JHH.
References
- Anggraini DI, Mirantana LP. Determination of anthocyanin level in kidney bean (
Phaseolus vulgaris L.) tempeh as a hepatoprotective agent. J Farm Sains Praktis. 2022. 8:294-301. - Aryanta IWR. Manfaat tempe untuk kesehatan. Widya Kesehat. 2020. 2:44-50.
- Bae IK, Kim KJ, Choi JS, Choi YI, Ha JH. Quality properties and storage characteristics of Pyeonyuk with different additional levels of turmeric powder. Food Sci Anim Resour. 2019. 39:35-44.
- Bahadoran Z, Mirmiran P, Ghasemi A. Role of nitric oxide in insulin secretion and glucose metabolism. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2020. 31:118-130.
- Boer GA, Holst JJ. Incretin hormones and type 2 diabetes-mechanistic insights and therapeutic approaches. Biology. 2020. 9:473.
- Buedo AP, Elustondo MP, Urbicain MJ. Non-enzymatic browning of peach juice concentrate during storage. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol. 2000. 1:255-260.
- Choi JY, Lee JH. Physicochemical and antioxidant properties of yanggaeng incorporated with orange peel powder. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2015. 44:470-474.
- do Prado FG, Pagnoncelli MGB, de Melo Pereira GV, Karp SG, Soccol CR. Fermented soy products and their potential health benefits: a review. Microorganisms. 2022. 10:1606.
- Douglas SM, Lasley TR, Leidy HJ. Consuming beef vs. soy protein has little effect on appetite, satiety, and food intake in healthy adults. J Nutr. 2015. 145:1010-1016.
- Gillespie KM, Kemps E, White MJ, Bartlett SE. The impact of free sugar on human health−a narrative review. Nutrients. 2023. 15:889.
- Guo M. Functional foods: principles and technology. CRC Press. 2013.
- Ha JH, Lee JH, Lee JJ, Choi YI, Lee HJ. Effects of whey protein injection as a curing solution on chicken breast meat. Food Sci Anim Resour. 2019. 39:494-502.
- Hu GG, Liu J, Wang YH, Yang ZN, Shao HB. Applications of plant protein in the dairy industry. Foods. 2022. 11:1067.
- Jang H, Lee J, Kim M, Kim I, Ha JH. Physicochemical characteristics and sensory attributes of yanggaeng treated with
Corni fructus powder: a pilot study. Appl Sci. 2023a. 13:2839. - Jang H, Lee J, Won S, Kim Y, Doo M, Kim I, et al. Physicochemical properties, antioxidant capacities, and sensory evaluation of yanggaeng treated with
Cissus quadrangularis . Appl Sci. 2023b. 13:11092. - Jobgen WS, Fried SK, Fu WJ, Meininger CJ, Wu G. Regulatory role for the arginine-nitric oxide pathway in metabolism of energy substrates. J Nutr Biochem. 2006. 17:571-588.
- Kathuria D, Hamid, Gautam S, Thakur A. Maillard reaction in different food products: Effect on product quality, human health and mitigation strategies. Food Control. 2023. 153:109911.
- Kim I, Ha JH, Jeong Y. Optimization of extraction conditions for antioxidant activity of
Acer tegmentosum using response surface methodology. Appl Sci. 2021. 11:1134. - Kim KH, Kim YS, Koh JH, Hong MS, Yook HS. Quality characteristics of yanggaeng added with tomato powder. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2014. 43:1042-1047.
- Kim YD, Kim HK, Kim KJ. Analysis of nutritional components of
Cornus officianalis . J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2003. 32:785-789. - Kim YH, Yook HS. Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of yanggaeng made with barley sprout powder. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2022. 51:1178-1184.
- Lecerf JM, Arnoldi A, Rowland I, Trabal J, Widhalm K, Aiking H, et al. Soyfoods, glycemic control and diabetes. Nutr Clin Métab. 2020. 34:141-148.
- Lee HS, Kim WY, Yang JE, Park SH, Jhee OH, Ly SY. Quality and characteristics of the yanggaeng made with mealworm powder. Korean J Hum Ecol. 2021. 30:169-179.
- Lee J, Jang H, Kang D, No C, Doo M, Shin EC, et al. Physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of yanggaeng treated with citrus peel powder. Appl Sci. 2023. 13:11377.
- Lee JJ, Choi J, Ha JH. Physicochemical and storage characteristics of pork tteokgalbi treated with
Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) powder. Appl Sci. 2022. 12:2425. - Liu WT, Huang CL, Liu R, Yang TC, Lee CL, Tsao R, et al. Changes in isoflavone profile, antioxidant activity, and phenolic contents in Taiwanese and Canadian soybeans during tempeh processing. LWT. 2023. 186:115207.
- Macdonald IA. A review of recent evidence relating to sugars, insulin resistance and diabetes. Eur J Nutr. 2016. 55:17-23.
- Noh DB, Kim KH, Yook HS. Physicochemical properties of yanggaeng with lentil bean sediment. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2016. 45:865-871.
- Park E, Ryu SI, Kim YJ, Paik JK. Development of calcium enriched healthy snack using dried shrimp. Korean J Food Nutr. 2022. 35:1-6.
- Reese R. Explore the store: tempeh. 2021 [cited 2023 Oct 11]. Available from: https://healthcenter.uga.edu/explore-the-storetempeh/
- Shurtleff W, Aoyagi A. History of tempeh and tempeh products (1815-2022): extensively annotated bibliography and sourcebook. Soyinfo Center. 2022. p 1815-2020.
- Su HK, Chen WC, Lu JH, Chao HR, Liang YF, Haruka S, et al. The effects of using tempeh as a supplement for type 2 diabetes. Food Sci Nutr. 2023. 11:3339-3347.
- Subali D, Christos RE, Givianty VT, Ranti AV, Kartawidjajaputra F, Antono L, et al. Soy-based tempeh rich in paraprobiotics properties as functional sports food: more than a protein source. Nutrients. 2023. 15:2599.
- Yoon HS, Jeong EJ, Kwon NR, Kim IJ, Hong ST, Kang HJ, et al. Quality characterization of yanggaeng added with jujube extracts. Korean J Food Nutr. 2018. 31:883-889.
- Zhang D, Ji W, Peng Y, Ji H, Gao J. Evaluation of flavor improvement in antarctic krill defluoridated hydrolysate by maillard reaction using sensory analysis, E-nose, and GC-MS. J Aquat Food Prod Technol. 2020. 29:279-292.
- Zheng X, Tian S. Effect of oxalic acid on control of postharvest browning of litchi fruit. Food Chem. 2006. 96:519-523.
Article
Note
Prev Nutr Food Sci 2023; 28(4): 514-519
Published online December 31, 2023 https://doi.org/10.3746/pnf.2023.28.4.514
Copyright © The Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.
Physicochemical Properties of Yanggaeng with Added Tempeh Powder
Amelly1 , Jisu Lee2
, Hyunsoo Jang2
, Dahyun Kang2
, Inyong Kim3
, Jung-Heun Ha2,4
1Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
2Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Chungnam 31116, Korea
3Department of Food and Nutrition, Sunchon National University, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
4Research Center for Industrialization of Natural Neutralization, Dankook University, Gyeonggi 16890, Korea
Correspondence to:Inyong Kim, E-mail: ikim@scnu.ac.kr, Jung-Heun Ha, E-mail: ha@dankook.ac.kr
*These authors contributed equally to this work.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the physicochemical and antioxidative properties of the traditional Korean confectionery, Yanggaeng, when various amounts of tempeh powder (TP) were added. We replaced a portion of the white bean paste in Yanggaeng with TP at percentages of 0% (CON), 2% (TP2), 4% (TP4), and 6% (TP6) by total weight. The proximate composition results showed that TP6 exhibited the highest crude ash and crude protein contents, but its moisture content and carbohydrate content were the lowest compared to the CON. Tempeh addition altered the colorimetric properties by increasing the L* value, b* value, and browning index; however, tempeh addition did not alter the a* value. The results also showed that tempeh addition gradually decreased the pH of Yanggaeng. The Brix value was the highest in TP2; in TP4 and TP6, the Brix value gradually decreased, and these formulations exhibited lower Brix values than the CON. Furthermore, tempeh addition gradually induced antioxidative capacities, as evidenced by 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging activities. The results of this study demonstrate that the addition of tempeh to Yanggaeng alters its physicochemical properties and antioxidative capacity.
Keywords: antioxidative capacity, physicochemical properties, tempeh, Yanggaeng
INTRODUCTION
Yanggaeng is a traditional Korean confectionery made from bean paste combined with agar and sugar (Choi and Lee, 2015). Over the years, Yanggaeng has maintained its reputation as a beloved snack for people of all ages thanks to its delightful sweetness and its soft, chewy texture. Consequently, Yanggaeng is frequently packaged as a gift and enjoyed during special occasions in Korea, such as the Lunar New Year (Yoon et al., 2018). Its compact packaging makes Yanggaeng a versatile choice, meaning Yanggaeng can serve as an alternative food in scenarios such as providing an energy boost for the elderly (Park et al., 2022), or as a convenient snack to replenish energy during physical activity (Kim et al., 2014). However, due to its high sugar content, excessive consumption of Yanggaeng can lead to health problems. A diet rich in refined sugars can elevate the risk of metabolic syndrome, including conditions like dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity (Macdonald, 2016).
Tempeh, originating from Indonesia, is a fermented soybean product created through the action of the mold species
Microbial fermentation leads to the hydrolysis of protein compounds, facilitating the efficient absorption of fermented protein products in the digestive system. Therefore, fermented foods such as tempeh are easily digested, absorbed, and utilized by the human body. The molds (
In response to the modern consumer’s preference for functional foods that promote health, several studies have been conducted to explore the addition of functional ingredients to Yanggaeng. The goal is to decrease the sugar content while boosting the protein levels in Yanggaeng. Recent initiatives focused on elevating the protein content of Yanggaeng have explored the incorporation of ingredients such as lentil beans (Noh et al., 2016), mealworms (Lee et al., 2021), and dry shrimp (Park et al., 2022). Numerous studies have also focused on enhancing the health-promoting properties of Yanggaeng by incorporating ingredients that are rich in functional and nutritional components. In this study, various concentrations of tempeh were added to Yanggaeng to create a novel high-protein snack. The proximate composition, physicochemical properties, and radical scavenging capacities of the different Yanggaeng were investigated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of tempeh-treated Yanggaeng
Frozen tempeh was imported from Bumi Food (Frozen Food: Tempeh, BumiFood Industry) and mechanically ground using an automated blender (HR2904, Philips Co.). The resulting powdery product, tempeh powder (TP), was used for further formulation. To prepare the Yanggaeng mixture, 10
-
Table 1 . Tempeh powder-added Yanggaeng formulations.
Ingredient (g) CON TP2 TP4 TP6 White bean paste 500 490 480 470 Water 400 400 400 400 White sugar 100 100 100 100 Agar powder 10 10 10 10 Tempeh powder 0 10 20 30 CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder..
Proximate analysis of Yanggaeng
The proximate characteristics of Yanggaeng, including crude ash, crude fat, moisture, crude protein levels, and carbohydrates, were assessed according to a well-established analytical method described previously (Bae et al., 2019; Ha et al., 2019).
Chromaticity of Yanggaeng
The
pH and Brix of Yanggaeng
Two grams of Yanggaeng was suspended in 20 mL of distilled water and centrifuged at 3,000
Antioxidant capacity of Yanggaeng
The total flavonoid contents (TFC) and total phenolic contents (TPC) were determined using established peer-reviewed methods (Kim et al., 2021). Quercetin and gallic acid were employed as reference materials for TFC and TPC measurement, respectively, and the results were reported as quercetin equivalents (mg QE/g) and gallic acid equivalents (μg GAE/g), respectively. The 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging capacities were also determined following previously published protocols (Kim and Yook, 2022; Lee et al., 2022).
Statistical analysis
The data were expressed as the mean and standard deviation from three independent measurements. The values were ranked and analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Tukey’s post hoc test, performed using the XLSTAT 2012 (Addinsoft, Inc.). The significance threshold for statistical differences was set at
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Proximate composition of Yanggaeng
The moisture, crude ash, crude fat, crude protein, and calculated carbohydrate content of the Yanggaeng are presented in Table 2. The moisture and crude fat content of the Yanggaeng did not vary significantly with the addition of tempeh. The crude ash content was lowest in TP4 and highest in TP6; however, considering the overall Yanggaeng composition, the statistical difference was negligible. As expected, the addition of tempeh, a protein-rich source, significantly and gradually increased the crude protein content of the Yanggaeng. The addition of a plant protein-rich source as a food additive in Yanggaeng generally leads to an elevation in crude protein content (Hu et al., 2022). Meanwhile, as the additional protein content replaced the white sugar content, the carbohydrate content gradually decreased (Gillespie et al., 2023) in the tempeh-added Yanggaeng.
-
Table 2 . Proximate compositions of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder (%).
Proximate composition CON TP2 TP4 TP6 Moisture 44.59±0.25NS 45.83±0.75 48.32±0.66 44.31±0.23 Crude ash 0.04±0.02ab 0.06±0.03ab 0.01±0.05b 0.09±0.03a Crude fat 0.43±0.30NS 0.84±0.61 1.06±0.59 0.30±0.16 Crude protein 6.77±0.84c 9.76±3.21bc 13.56±1.66ab 14.33±1.90a Carbohydrate1) 48.17±1.13a 43.50±2.11ab 41.07±2.06b 40.96±1.92b CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder..
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test..
Means with different letters (a-c) in the same row are significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant..1)Carbohydrate=100−(moisture+crude ash+crude fat+crude protein)..
Colorimetric properties of Yanggaeng
Table 3 presents the colorimetric properties of the various Yanggaeng. With an increase in TP, the overall
-
Table 3 . Hunter’s colorimetric properties of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder.
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 L *42.27±0.15d 45.17±0.21b 48.13±0.57a 43.47±0.12c a *—0.70±0.20NS —0.53±0.06 —0.77±0.06 —0.60±0.00 b *2.50±0.20d 5.07±0.06c 5.73±0.21b 7.53±0.06a BI 4.74±0.75c 10.74±0.23bc 11.19±0.40ab 17.54±0.19a CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder..
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test..
Means with different letters (a-d) in the same row were significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant..L* , lightness;a* , redness;b* , yellowness; BI, browning index..
-
Figure 1. External features of Yanggaeng made with tempeh powder. CON, control (no added tempeh powder); TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
The increased
pH and Brix values of the Yanggaeng
Table 4 shows the pH and Brix values of the formulated Yanggaeng. With an increase in the amount of tempeh-added, the overall pH of the Yanggaeng was significantly reduced. The pH was 6.69 in the control, and with the addition of tempeh, the pH gradually decreased to 6.62, 6.48, and 6.42 in the TP2, TP4, and TP6 samples, respectively. During microbial fermentation, pH is typically reduced due to the production of acidic metabolites (Zheng and Tian, 2006), including organic acids and lactic acid, as well as GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) (Guo, 2013). Since tempeh undergoes fermentation during its production, it may have an acidic nature, which is why the addition of tempeh lowers the pH when used as a food additive. This change in pH may also enhance the textural properties, for example by improving the chewiness and softness, as demonstrated in a pilot study conducted by Jang (2023a). Further analysis of the textural properties is necessary in the follow-up study.
-
Table 4 . Variations in pH and Brix of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder.
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 pH 6.69±0.02a 6.62±0.01b 6.48±0.01c 6.42±0.01d Brix 2.70±0.00b 3.00±0.00a 2.20±0.06c 1.87±0.06d CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder..
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test..
Means with different letters (a-d) in the same row are significantly different at
P <0.05..
The addition of tempeh had an intriguing effect on the Brix value of the Yanggaeng. The Brix value was highest in TP2 (3.00), and was significantly higher than that of the control (2.70). However, TP4 (2.20) and TP6 (1.87) exhibited significantly lower Brix levels compared to the control. In our experimental recipe, a portion of the white bean paste was replaced by TP. In the control, there may have been a significant amount of undissolved white bean paste, which could explain why the relative Brix may have been higher in TP2. In the case of TP4 and TP6, despite having a higher amount of tempeh compared to the other groups, it exhibited a lower Brix, possibly because the Maillard reaction decreased the Brix in TP4 and TP6 (Buedo et al., 2000).
Antioxidative properties of Yanggaeng
Table 5 presents the TPC and ABTS radical scavenging activities of the tempeh-added Yanggaeng. Interestingly, there was an increasing trend in the TPC in the TP6 Yanggaeng compared to the other groups. This increase in TPC in TP6 may be attributed to microbial fermentation, which could enhance the level of phenolic compounds in tempeh, potentially leading to an elevation in TPC. The TPC values of the CON, TP2, and TP4 were 9.12, 9.13, and 9.69 μg GAE/g, respectively. Interestingly, the TPC value was far higher in TP6, measuring 16.11 μg GAE/g. Previous reports have clearly demonstrated that the hydrolysis of plant-based protein sources enhances the phenolic and/or flavonoid contents after enzymatic processing (Hu et al., 2022), as observed in our data.
-
Table 5 . Antioxidative activities of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder.
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 TPC (μg GAE/g) 9.12±1.91NS 9.13±2.28 9.69±4.70 16.11±3.16 ABTS radical scavenging activities (inhibition %) 6.63±0.12c 6.60±0.40c 7.44±0.47b 12.27±1.44a CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder..
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test..
Means with different letters (a-c) in the same row were significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant..TPC, total phenol content; GAE, gallic acid equivalent; ABTS, 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)..
Due to the production of TPC in TP6, we logically speculated that the TFC would also be elevated in tempeh-added Yanggaeng; however, flavonoids were not detectable in any of the samples (with a limit of quantification set at 100 mg QE/g; data not shown). This absence of detectable TFC could potentially be explained by the fact that white bean paste, a major component of Yanggaeng, is derived from kidney beans (
Conclusion
The physical and chemical properties of Yanggaeng with added TP vary depending on the concentration of addition. With the addition of tempeh, the crude protein content increased and carbohydrates decreased. The dark and brown color changed because
FUNDING
None.
AUTHOR DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Concept and design: A, IK, JHH. Analysis and interpretation: all authors. Data collection: A, JL, HJ, DK. Writing the article: A, JL, HJ, JHH. Critical revision of the article: all authors. Final approval of the article: all authors. Statistical analysis: A, JL, HJ, DK, JHH. Overall responsibility: JHH.
Fig 1.

-
Table 1 . Tempeh powder-added Yanggaeng formulations
Ingredient (g) CON TP2 TP4 TP6 White bean paste 500 490 480 470 Water 400 400 400 400 White sugar 100 100 100 100 Agar powder 10 10 10 10 Tempeh powder 0 10 20 30 CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
-
Table 2 . Proximate compositions of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder (%)
Proximate composition CON TP2 TP4 TP6 Moisture 44.59±0.25NS 45.83±0.75 48.32±0.66 44.31±0.23 Crude ash 0.04±0.02ab 0.06±0.03ab 0.01±0.05b 0.09±0.03a Crude fat 0.43±0.30NS 0.84±0.61 1.06±0.59 0.30±0.16 Crude protein 6.77±0.84c 9.76±3.21bc 13.56±1.66ab 14.33±1.90a Carbohydrate1) 48.17±1.13a 43.50±2.11ab 41.07±2.06b 40.96±1.92b CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-c) in the same row are significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant.1)Carbohydrate=100−(moisture+crude ash+crude fat+crude protein).
-
Table 3 . Hunter’s colorimetric properties of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 L *42.27±0.15d 45.17±0.21b 48.13±0.57a 43.47±0.12c a *—0.70±0.20NS —0.53±0.06 —0.77±0.06 —0.60±0.00 b *2.50±0.20d 5.07±0.06c 5.73±0.21b 7.53±0.06a BI 4.74±0.75c 10.74±0.23bc 11.19±0.40ab 17.54±0.19a CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-d) in the same row were significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant.L* , lightness;a* , redness;b* , yellowness; BI, browning index.
-
Table 4 . Variations in pH and Brix of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 pH 6.69±0.02a 6.62±0.01b 6.48±0.01c 6.42±0.01d Brix 2.70±0.00b 3.00±0.00a 2.20±0.06c 1.87±0.06d CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-d) in the same row are significantly different at
P <0.05.
-
Table 5 . Antioxidative activities of Yanggaeng treated with tempeh powder
CON TP2 TP4 TP6 TPC (μg GAE/g) 9.12±1.91NS 9.13±2.28 9.69±4.70 16.11±3.16 ABTS radical scavenging activities (inhibition %) 6.63±0.12c 6.60±0.40c 7.44±0.47b 12.27±1.44a CON, Yanggaeng prepared with 0% tempeh powder; TP2, Yanggaeng prepared with 2% tempeh powder; TP4, Yanggaeng prepared with 4% tempeh powder; TP6, Yanggaeng prepared with 6% tempeh powder.
Data are presented as mean±SD (n=3). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test.
Means with different letters (a-c) in the same row were significantly different at
P <0.05. NS, not significant.TPC, total phenol content; GAE, gallic acid equivalent; ABTS, 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid).
References
- Anggraini DI, Mirantana LP. Determination of anthocyanin level in kidney bean (
Phaseolus vulgaris L.) tempeh as a hepatoprotective agent. J Farm Sains Praktis. 2022. 8:294-301. - Aryanta IWR. Manfaat tempe untuk kesehatan. Widya Kesehat. 2020. 2:44-50.
- Bae IK, Kim KJ, Choi JS, Choi YI, Ha JH. Quality properties and storage characteristics of Pyeonyuk with different additional levels of turmeric powder. Food Sci Anim Resour. 2019. 39:35-44.
- Bahadoran Z, Mirmiran P, Ghasemi A. Role of nitric oxide in insulin secretion and glucose metabolism. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2020. 31:118-130.
- Boer GA, Holst JJ. Incretin hormones and type 2 diabetes-mechanistic insights and therapeutic approaches. Biology. 2020. 9:473.
- Buedo AP, Elustondo MP, Urbicain MJ. Non-enzymatic browning of peach juice concentrate during storage. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol. 2000. 1:255-260.
- Choi JY, Lee JH. Physicochemical and antioxidant properties of yanggaeng incorporated with orange peel powder. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2015. 44:470-474.
- do Prado FG, Pagnoncelli MGB, de Melo Pereira GV, Karp SG, Soccol CR. Fermented soy products and their potential health benefits: a review. Microorganisms. 2022. 10:1606.
- Douglas SM, Lasley TR, Leidy HJ. Consuming beef vs. soy protein has little effect on appetite, satiety, and food intake in healthy adults. J Nutr. 2015. 145:1010-1016.
- Gillespie KM, Kemps E, White MJ, Bartlett SE. The impact of free sugar on human health−a narrative review. Nutrients. 2023. 15:889.
- Guo M. Functional foods: principles and technology. CRC Press. 2013.
- Ha JH, Lee JH, Lee JJ, Choi YI, Lee HJ. Effects of whey protein injection as a curing solution on chicken breast meat. Food Sci Anim Resour. 2019. 39:494-502.
- Hu GG, Liu J, Wang YH, Yang ZN, Shao HB. Applications of plant protein in the dairy industry. Foods. 2022. 11:1067.
- Jang H, Lee J, Kim M, Kim I, Ha JH. Physicochemical characteristics and sensory attributes of yanggaeng treated with
Corni fructus powder: a pilot study. Appl Sci. 2023a. 13:2839. - Jang H, Lee J, Won S, Kim Y, Doo M, Kim I, et al. Physicochemical properties, antioxidant capacities, and sensory evaluation of yanggaeng treated with
Cissus quadrangularis . Appl Sci. 2023b. 13:11092. - Jobgen WS, Fried SK, Fu WJ, Meininger CJ, Wu G. Regulatory role for the arginine-nitric oxide pathway in metabolism of energy substrates. J Nutr Biochem. 2006. 17:571-588.
- Kathuria D, Hamid, Gautam S, Thakur A. Maillard reaction in different food products: Effect on product quality, human health and mitigation strategies. Food Control. 2023. 153:109911.
- Kim I, Ha JH, Jeong Y. Optimization of extraction conditions for antioxidant activity of
Acer tegmentosum using response surface methodology. Appl Sci. 2021. 11:1134. - Kim KH, Kim YS, Koh JH, Hong MS, Yook HS. Quality characteristics of yanggaeng added with tomato powder. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2014. 43:1042-1047.
- Kim YD, Kim HK, Kim KJ. Analysis of nutritional components of
Cornus officianalis . J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2003. 32:785-789. - Kim YH, Yook HS. Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of yanggaeng made with barley sprout powder. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2022. 51:1178-1184.
- Lecerf JM, Arnoldi A, Rowland I, Trabal J, Widhalm K, Aiking H, et al. Soyfoods, glycemic control and diabetes. Nutr Clin Métab. 2020. 34:141-148.
- Lee HS, Kim WY, Yang JE, Park SH, Jhee OH, Ly SY. Quality and characteristics of the yanggaeng made with mealworm powder. Korean J Hum Ecol. 2021. 30:169-179.
- Lee J, Jang H, Kang D, No C, Doo M, Shin EC, et al. Physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of yanggaeng treated with citrus peel powder. Appl Sci. 2023. 13:11377.
- Lee JJ, Choi J, Ha JH. Physicochemical and storage characteristics of pork tteokgalbi treated with
Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) powder. Appl Sci. 2022. 12:2425. - Liu WT, Huang CL, Liu R, Yang TC, Lee CL, Tsao R, et al. Changes in isoflavone profile, antioxidant activity, and phenolic contents in Taiwanese and Canadian soybeans during tempeh processing. LWT. 2023. 186:115207.
- Macdonald IA. A review of recent evidence relating to sugars, insulin resistance and diabetes. Eur J Nutr. 2016. 55:17-23.
- Noh DB, Kim KH, Yook HS. Physicochemical properties of yanggaeng with lentil bean sediment. J Korean Soc Food Sci Nutr. 2016. 45:865-871.
- Park E, Ryu SI, Kim YJ, Paik JK. Development of calcium enriched healthy snack using dried shrimp. Korean J Food Nutr. 2022. 35:1-6.
- Reese R. Explore the store: tempeh. 2021 [cited 2023 Oct 11]. Available from: https://healthcenter.uga.edu/explore-the-storetempeh/
- Shurtleff W, Aoyagi A. History of tempeh and tempeh products (1815-2022): extensively annotated bibliography and sourcebook. Soyinfo Center. 2022. p 1815-2020.
- Su HK, Chen WC, Lu JH, Chao HR, Liang YF, Haruka S, et al. The effects of using tempeh as a supplement for type 2 diabetes. Food Sci Nutr. 2023. 11:3339-3347.
- Subali D, Christos RE, Givianty VT, Ranti AV, Kartawidjajaputra F, Antono L, et al. Soy-based tempeh rich in paraprobiotics properties as functional sports food: more than a protein source. Nutrients. 2023. 15:2599.
- Yoon HS, Jeong EJ, Kwon NR, Kim IJ, Hong ST, Kang HJ, et al. Quality characterization of yanggaeng added with jujube extracts. Korean J Food Nutr. 2018. 31:883-889.
- Zhang D, Ji W, Peng Y, Ji H, Gao J. Evaluation of flavor improvement in antarctic krill defluoridated hydrolysate by maillard reaction using sensory analysis, E-nose, and GC-MS. J Aquat Food Prod Technol. 2020. 29:279-292.
- Zheng X, Tian S. Effect of oxalic acid on control of postharvest browning of litchi fruit. Food Chem. 2006. 96:519-523.